Victorian_philosophy

__**Victorian Philosophy and Worldview**__

//Moral Philosophy with Dan Schwartz, Brian J. Young Emeritus Professor of Philosophy, Harvard University//




 * Epicurus, the Aesthetics and their impact of literature**

Jane Austen predated the emergence of the __Aesthetes and Decadents__ in Victorian literature. These writers and artists were highly influenced by the late Hellenistic philosopher, Epicurus (342-270 BCE) who advocated pleasure as the greatest good in life. They also followed the teachings of the Oxford don Walter Pater, who wrote in his essays published from 1867-1868 that "life should follow an ideal of beauty" (Aestheticism). During the peak of the Aesthetics reign over literary life, Victorian authors like Oscar Wilde ("A Picture of Dorian Gray") produced text that was extremely ornate and artistic. These writers viewed Art as the highest form of beauty in life, and viewed any art-form superior to the beauty of nature. There was a preponderance of synesthetic imagery (symbolism which links "music, words and colors") in many of these late Victorian works in addition to frequent use of sensuous language (Synesthesia). Furthermore, many of these authors interweaved a motif of life as a "drama, dance or puppet show" into their works and often incorporated a theme concerning the desire for human beings to escape their wretched existence by "posing and artifice" (Philosophy Overview). The literature of the Aesthetics was rife with "masks, cosmetics and jewels," all representing various facets of human artifice (Philosophy Overview). Any means of defying the natural were exalted by Victorian writers, since appeal to the senses and artistic temperament of humans meant that it was possible to transcend the bleakness of nature.


 * Pride and Prejudice as a forerunner to the Aesthetic movement**

The idea of artifice as a means of escaping boredom is certainly prevalent throughout __Pride and Prejudice__. While Austen's masterpiece was not part of the larger Aesthetic movement, her commentary could justly be interpreted as a precursor of and foundation for the philosophies of her Victorian successors. Many of the scenes in __Pride and Prejudice__ reflect the British attraction to the ornate and artificial as opposed to the real and substantive matters of human existence. The description of the banquet at Lady Catherine de Bourgh's mansion conveys an air of ornateness which the Aesthetics relished: "The dinner was exceedingly handsome, and there were all the servants, and all the articles of plate which Mr. Collins had promised; and as he likewise foretold, he took his seat at the bottom of the table, by her Ladyship's desire, and looked as if he felt that life could furnish nothing greater. He carved, and ate and praised with delighted alacrity" (Austen 125). The author's use of the words "exceedingly handosme," "life could furnish nothing greater," and "carved ... ate ... praised" reflect the Victorian infatuation with ornateness in food, art and life which Austen so thoroughly satires in her novel, yet the Aesthetics worshipped.


 * Ballrooms and Victorian Sexuality**

The idea of life as a dance or puppet show is incredibly important throughout __Pride and Prejudice__ and the ball scenes represent the Aesthetics' attraction to the "unnatural," specifically the extravagance of a Victorian ballroom which serves as a vehicle for much of the love and courtship which takes place in the novel. Mrs. Bennet says of the upcoming Netherfield ball: "To be fond of dancing was a certain step towards falling in love" (Austen 7). Thus, balls represent the puppet show of life. This idea of the "world as a stage, and all the men and women merely players" (Shakespeare, "As You Like It") is embodied by the fleeting attractions, sustained romance, frivolous dialogue and entertainment provided by these kinds of social gathertings. Moreover, balls were essentially an outlet of Victorian sexuality since dancing was the height of physical intimacy during courtship. It was during the Victorian period that sexual identity became the center of one's "identity, potentiality, social/political standing and freedom," contrary to the commonly held view that Victorians were sexually repressed (Sexuality and Modernity). In this light, the Netherfield and Meryton balls relate explicitly sexual undercurrents specifically within the interaction between the younger characters engaged in courtship. The notion of the "passionless, reproductive wife" is epitomized by Mrs. Bennet, who comes to represent the antithesis of the virile Victorian male engaged in the bourgeois politics of capitalism and business which dominated 19th century Industrial-era Britain (Sexuality and Modernity). Victorian sexual values weren't derived solely as a fundamental human need, but as a compelling economic incentive to maintain the British aristocracy as well. This idea is illustrated by the interaction between Darcy and Elizabeth. While Darcy clearly is sexually attracted to Elizabeth, he consciously dulls his own innate desire for her due to the economic forces and sense of aristocratic duty which keep him from mating with someone of lower birth. While he inevitably realizes that his love for Elizabeth trumps the external factors leading him to a woman of higher class, the economic considerations in deciding to propose to Elizabeth clearly demonstrate the various elements which affected Victorian sexuality aside from genuine sexual desire (Sexuality and Modernity).

//Economic Philosophy with Erik Hoempler//



There were many different economic philosophers during the Victorian Era. The most famous of these was Adam Smith (pictured above). In his book __The Wealth of Nations__, he described the importance of labor specialization to maximizing output. Instead of having every worker do the same job at the same time, the work should be divided so that more time can be put into doing each process, and each worker should do the job that he is most efficient at doing. Not switching from job to job throughout the day saves time and money (Philosophy Overview). This idea, once put into use, saved many industries a lot of money and helped them to expand greatly throughout the 1800s. He also belived that repeating the same job would decrease job satisfaction over time, so he stated that the government had an obligation to provide education to workers (Philosophy Overview). Though he believed this, he also believed that the economy would work most efficiently without any interference by the government. He said that the government does not need to interfere because each individual, in seeking his own personal gain, would benefit the industry as a whole (MSN Encarta).

David Ricardo believed that the economy would eventually slow down and even stop due to decreased profits. Based on this belief, Karl Marx created his own ideas about the economy. He believed in communism, where everyone can work in society without fear of exploitation (Philosophy Overview). In his book __The Communist Manifesto__, he predicted that the working class would revolt and overthrow the social order, enstating a classless society. Thomas Robert Malthus believed that population growth would eventually lead to a shortage of food, that is, there would be a greater demand for food than the supply.

It is evident that even though not many people were concerned with economic science at the time, everyone was concerned with personal finance. This is clearly demonstrated in Jane Austen's __Pride and Prejudice__. In the first chapter of the novel, Mr. and Mrs. Bennet are discussing the arrival of a wealthy new member to their local community, Mr. Bingley. Though he turns out to be a very amiable and classy fellow, they are more concerned with his financial situation than his personality in their interest in his marrying one of their daughters. The first line of the novel states, "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife" (Austen 1) This means that everyone believes that rich men ought to be married, and that women are very often interested in marrying men because they have a large fortune. Marriage, at the time, was more of a business decision than a romantic one. Women needed to only marry men who would be able to provide for them for the rest of their lives. For example, Mrs. Gardiner advises her niece, Elizabeth Bennet, against marrying Wickham, a military officer, because he does not have much money. She says, "He is a most interesting man; and if he had the fortune he ought to have, I should think you could not do better" (Austen 193). This epitomizes the belief of the time that women should only marry rich men.

//Political Philosophy with Andrew Lowden//

__**Jeremy Bentham & Utilitarianism**__

An important political philosopher during the Victorian Era was a man named Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). He is responsible for the political idea of Utilitarianism (or, Benthamism). The heart of this philosophy is "the greatest happiness for the greatest number", meaning that politics should be derived from the idea that if the majority of people are happy, all is well. Bentham came up with this idea when reading Joseph Priestly's //Treatise on Government////.// As Glenn Everett puts it, Bentham’s philosophy wanted to “reduce decision-making about human actions to a felicific calculus by weighing the profit, convenience, advantage, benefit, emolument, and happiness that would ensue from the action against the mischief, disadvantage, inconvenience, loss, and unhappiness that it would also entail” (Philosophy Overview). Utilitarianism combined David Ricardo’s “laissez-faire”, or hands off policy on government, and Robert Thomas Malthus’ ideas about how population would increase in the future.

__**Types of Utilitarianism**__

There are many different types of Utilitarianism. First is Act Utilitarianism. Act Utilitarianism means that when a person is faced with a choice between many options, they must consider what will happen due to their possible choice. From those considerations, they must choose what will bring them the most happiness. The greatest criticism of this philosophy was that it would take too long for humans to think out the possibilities and follow their paths to ultimate happiness. So, Rule Utilitarianism was created. This means that a person has to looks at potential rules of action, and thinks about what would happen if that rule was consistently adhered to (Utilitarianism).

__**John Stuart Mill & Utilitarianism**__ John Stuart Mill also wrote about Utilitarianism. He took Bentham’s lead and expounded on his ideas. His book titled //Utilitarianism//, is perhaps one of the most read books on this topic. He defined Utilitarianism to mean both intellectual and sensual pleasure. Because we fell that we should have a sense of dignity, we prefer the intellectual pleasures over the sensual ones. Mill also argues that the principle of Utility should be seen as a tool for judging between moral dilemmas. Mill provides and example of this: “For example, a moral principle of charity dictates that one should feed a starving neighbour, and the moral principle of self-preservation dictates that one should feed oneself. If one does not have enough food to do both, then one should determine whether general happiness would be better served by feeding my neighbour, or feeding oneself” (Philosophy Overview). Mill also talks about how if one particular item is desired, then only that one particular item ought to be desired. So, if general happiness is the only thing desired, general happiness is the only thing that ought to be desired. Mill says that, “everything we desire becomes part of happiness. Thus, happiness becomes a complex phenomenon composed of many parts, such as virtue, love of money, power, and fame” (Philosophy Overview).

__Works Cited__

"Adam Smith." __MSN Encarta__. 2007. Microsoft. 28 Oct 2007 [|http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556047/Smith_Adam_(economist).html.]

"Aestheticism." 17 Sept 2007. 28 Oct 2007 < [|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetes>.]

Austen, Jane. __Pride and Prejudice__. 1813.

John Simon, Oswald. "The Progress of Religious Thought during the Victorian Reign." __The Jewish Quarterly Review__ 10(1898):

Nighan, Dr. Raymond. "Victorian Philosophy." __Dr. Nighan's British Literature and History of Western Philosophy Course__. 07 Apr 2007. 23 Oct 2007 < [|http://www.stjohns-chs.org/english/blindex.html>.]

"Philosophy Overview." __The Victorian Web: Literature, History, and Culture in the Age of Victoria__. 14 Jun 2007. University Scholars Programme Project. 23 Oct 2007 < [|http://www.victorianweb.org/philosophy/index.html>.]

__Sexuality and Modernity: Victorian Sexuality__. 26 Oct 2007. 28 Oct 2007 <[|http://www.isis.aust.com/stephan/writings/sexuality/vict.htm>.]

"Synesthesia." 26 Oct 2007. 28 Oct 2007 < [|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia>.]

"Utilitarianism." 28 Oct 2007 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism>.]