Leadership,+Ideology+and+Thought+-+A+Closer+Look+at+the+Movers+and+Shakers+Behind+the+African+American+Struggle+for+Progress

=__Leadership, Ideology and Thought: A Closer Look at the Movers and Shakers Behind the African American Struggle for Progress__=

Brother Brian, Brother Ben and Brother Dan Soul Power

__Abstract__

This wikispace seeks to analyze the 20th century and present day ideological rifts within the Civil Rights movement in order to thoroughly examine IM's perceptions of these ideas and assess how his own interpretations of "progress" evolve throughout the novel.

__Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Nonviolence__ Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was one of the most influential figures of his time. His words empowered African Americans to demand for change in an inherently unjust society through nonviolent means. According to Dr. King, this was the only solution that could cure society’s evils and create a just environment for all. As he emerged as the preeminent leader in the civil rights movement, he put his beliefs into action and proved that nonviolent opposition was the most effective method to combat racial segregation.

Dr. King was first introduced to this idea during his time in a theological seminary. He was struck by the concept of Satyagraha, originally used by Gandhi, which means "truth-force" or "love-force". He realized that "the Christian doctrine of love operating through the Gandhian method of nonviolence was one of the most potent weapons available to oppressed people in their struggle for freedom” [15]. Despite the overpowering message behind Satyagraha, he was unconvinced that it could work effectively in the United States, especially because upper-class whites were excruciatingly inflexible to change. His work during the Montgomery bus boycott proved the power of nonviolent protest and inspired future civil rights movements.

//King's Six Points on Nonviolence//

King believed that there were six fundamental points to nonviolent resistance. The first is that even though nonviolence may have been perceived as cowardly, it was not. In fact, it was a method of protest that showed great restraint and courage. Contrary to popular belief, it takes far more courage and power to impose one's will without violence than with it. The second is that the point of nonviolent resistance is not to humiliate your opponent, but instead to gain his friendship and understanding. This method is based on the ideal of loving one's enemy and forgiving. It may be argued that boycotts and sit-ins, tools repeatedly used by Dr. King, could in no way gain the friendship and understanding of his enemies. However, these weapons were used to show whites of their wrongdoing without aggressive action. Third, King argued that the battle was against the forces of evil and not individuals, which was very different from what many other leaders of his time were preaching. The overwhelming tension was not between the races but rather between justice and injustice. Fourth, nonviolent resistance required the willingness to suffer by its users. Dr. King argued that blacks must be willing to accept violence without retaliation and must go to jail if necessary. As any great leader should, he followed his own preachings, ending with him serving jail time for various offenses invented by the white man. King's fifth point about nonviolent resistance was that the universe was on the side of justice. As an extremely religious man, Dr. King drew much of his strength from his faith in God and the divine, and thus used many Christian teachings in his speeches. Finally, King's sixth point was that the importance of nonviolence rested in the fact that it prevented physical violence and the internal violence of spirit. He stressed that by practicing nonviolent protest one could eliminate external as well as internal violence in one's life. He firmly believed that love would fill the lives of the resistors and overtake the void where hate used to reside [18]. //Connection to IM//

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s theories on nonviolence can be found throughout the teachings of the Brotherhood. More specifically, one character and member of this organization seems to embody all that is nonviolent protest and its parts. As the leader of the Brotherhood, Brother Jack utilizes nonviolent resistance, scientific methods, and rationality as per the ideas behind nonviolent protest. Through his work in the novel, scholars and critics have drawn many connections between Brother Jack and Dr. King.

Brother Jack's views on nonviolent resistance are extremely strong. He serves as the polar opposite to Ras the Exhorter, who later dubs himself Ras the Destroyer, a man who strikes first and asks questions later. "Come jine with us to burst in the armory and get guns and ammunition!" [10]. This line, said by Ras the Destroyer, exemplifies his fight-first ideology. Conversely, Brother Jack is working as the head of the Brotherhood to bring about equality for all without the use of violence. Despite various cries from the Invisible Man for action on the part of the Brotherhood, Brother Jack remains steadfast in his beliefs, just as Dr. King did throughout his struggle.

A term that comes up frequently n the Brotherhood scenes is "science"-based rhetoric in contrast with visceral, emotional rhetoric that //IM// is adept at using. The brothers had a fascination with doing things in a scientific method, as did Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. They both approached situations with a level head and devised the most appropriate action in response to each individual event they were forced to counter. Both he and Brother Jack found great solace in scientific methods as they were proven to be successful ways to answer problems. They believed in analyzing a situation, determining which route was the correct one to take, and acting upon the decision so long as it didn't involve violence. One typical exchange between the sometimes-volatile invisible man and the calmer, elder brothers took place after the invisible man’s first speech on behalf of the brotherhood. “It was the antithesis of the scientific approach. Ours is a reasonable point of view. We are champions of a scientific approach to society, and such a speech as we’ve identified ourselves with tonight destroys everything that has been said before” [10]. Here, Brother Jack along with several other brothers are commenting on his speech and explaining that he was too rash, too far from the ideals they preach.

Rationality is a quality that all great leaders should possess. It is extremely easy to act rashly in times of crisis yet these endeavors are often futile and backfire to perform the opposite of the desired result. Despite the fact that many believed Dr. King's methods to be extreme and dangerous, he never acted without rationality. Much like his real-life counterpart, Brother Jack was well known in the Brotherhood for his deliberation and his almost always levelheadedness.

__**W.E.B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington**__

W.E.B DuBois and Booker T Washington were both proponents of non violent strategies to gain equal rights for African Americans, but the fundamental principles of their strategies were widely varied. Both men proved to be significant forces in the shaping of the post civil war world for African Americans, and though their ideologies often clashed they were both regarded as some of the greatest minds of the time period.

W.E.B. DuBois was a graduate of Harvard, and in 1895 he became the first African American to receive a doctorate from the university [20]. DuBois believed that the political system was the tool that would gain African Americans equality. He urged African Americans to fight for their rights, take political action, and educate themselves. Through education and active participation in the political process, African Americans could gain their full rights as American citizens. DuBois developed a concept that he entitled “The Talented Tenth”. This talented tenth was comprised of a smaller well educated portion of the black community who would lead the race towards social equality and self betterment. This group manifested itself in the form of the revolutionary organization The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Using both his writing skills and the NAACP publication known as //The Crisis//, DuBois had little difficulty disseminating his political ideas and messages to the black community [11].

The NAACP served as a major force in the battle for civil rights. Not only did their campaign to ensure the enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments prove to be significant steps forward for the Black community, but the organization within itself became a symbol of the rising influence of African Americans. The fact that such an organization consisting of both Black and White people fighting for the civil liberties of “second class” citizens represented a growing hope in the concept of true equality. This well organized and well executed effort towards answering the race question revealed the growing momentum inherent within the civil rights movement.

DuBois introduced an interesting concept through his book //The Souls of the Black Folk// known as double consciousness. “ After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world,—a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world. It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feel his twoness,—an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder. The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife,--this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self" [9]. This double conciousness was a result of the psychological impact of slavery. African Americans were suddenly introduced into an entirely different world upon being emancipated, and the mindset of a race struggling through a difficult transitionary period was what DuBois ment by double conciousness. This intellectual insight into the psyche of the Black community revealed DuBois’ knowledge of the problem facing his people and proved that he had the intelligence to offer plausible and effective solutions.

A second yet equally influential man took the stage of history alongside W.E.B. DuBois. Booker T. Washington, a former uneducated slave, rose up despite his past enslavement to become one of those most significant historical figures of the civil rights movement. While at first both Washington and DuBois held deep respect for the methods and actions of the other, DuBois soon became disenchanted with Washington’s plan for equality. Washington believed that in order for Blacks to rise up to a status of equality, they would have to start from the beginning. Through training in manual labor and economic development, the black community could become a vital part of the work force and use this position to further their status. Washington preached compliance with the White men rather then resistance to oppression, and it was this ideological difference that formed the rift between DuBois and Washington. He portrayed the White community as a paternal force overseeing the integration of African Americans into American society, and this mind set earned him considerable popularity among influential Whites. This support earned him a great deal of funding, and this funding allowed for the growth of Washington’s organization. Nicknamed “The Tuskegee Machine”, this organization consisted of a network of Black institutions that were heavily influenced by Washington. Such significant power in the hands of a man that DuBois believed to be misguided led to a countermovement on the part of DuBois to curb the influence of Washington. “The Black men of America have a duty to perform; a duty stern and delicate—a forward movement to oppose a part of the work of their greatest leader.” (9) DuBois claimed in his famous work //The Souls of the Black Folk.// While DuBois recognized both the good intentions and vast potential of Booker T. Washington, his practice of compliance resigned African Americans to the status of inferior citizens, and such an idea was detrimental to the civil rights movement.



__The Principles of DuBois and Washington in IM__

Washington 's principles of compliance and the assimilation of economic power are depicted early on in the novel. The Invisible Man has become a diligent student who seeks to educate himself for the sake of getting a career and making something of himself. His obvious subservience to white men and even Dr. Bledsoe, a black man embodying "white" qualities, is representative of the philosophies of Washington. The Invisible Man embodies all the qualities of the ideal follower of Washington, and Ellison takes considerable effort to establish the negative aspects of such a lifestyle. The Invisible Man is portrayed as constantly anxious, dutifully awaiting the fate placed upon him by men who frankly don’t care about him. After a penetrating and truthful monologue given by the doctor at the Golden Day describing the dehumanizing relationship between Black and White men, the Invisible Man finds himself scorned and exiled from the world that was only taking advantage of him in the first place [10]. Ellison clearly refutes the Washington school of thought in this instance, revealing the fact that equality cannot be attained while African Americans remain in a position of inferiority. As the Invisible Man begins to understand the faulty nature of his past arrangement, the transition towards the thinking of DuBois begins. After the shock treatment rids him of his fear, the Invisible Man takes his first step towards ridding himself of DuBois’ “double consciousness” in order “ to merge his double self into a better and truer self" [9]. The second step manifests itself in the Invisible Man’s passionate immersion into the Brotherhood [10]. This devotion towards an organization with political goals is indicitive of the influence of DuBois on Ellison’s //Invisible Man.// Due to the fact that DuBois believed strongly that African Americans could gain equality through becoming political, it is in this moment that the Invisible Man switches over to the ideology of DuBois. The Brotherhood often spoke about guiding the Black community by focusing and organizing their energy towards the acomplishment of their goals. This guidence from an educated few holds many similarities with W.E.B. DuBois’ “Talented Tenth.” However, Ellison seems to refute the theories of DuBois as well once the Brotherhood is revealed as an organization seeking to use the African American community against itself. While Ellison at first seems to support the ideas of DuBois, both DuBois’ and Washington’s plans for the achievement of equality are discarded by the end of the novel. This seems to imply that while Ellison saw some validity in these concepts, the answer to the race question lies within the individual. Great and powerful men will always be present to guide the forces of history as they may, but it is up to every man and women to decide for themselves what is right.


 * http://books.google.com/books?id=T_H2i0_FHN0C&pg=PA49&lpg=PA49&dq=civil+rights+ideology&source=web&ots=aumUo3NTzl&sig=xxTctiHdRdpdT4fL_WCkd7UWQpQ&hl=en#PPA50,M1

p. 50**

__Black Nationalism__

"We have as much right biblically and otherwise to believe that God is a Negroe, as you buckra or white people have to believe that God is a fine looking, symmetrical and ornamented white man. For the bulk of you and all the fool Negroes of the country believe that God is white-skinned, blue eyed, straight-haired, projected nosed, compressed lipped and finely robed white gentleman, sitting upon a throne somewhere in the heavens. Every race of people who have attempted to describe their God by words, or by paintings, or by carvings, or any other form or figure, have conveyed the idea that the God who made them and shaped their destinies was symbolized in themselves, and why should not the Negroe believe that he resembles God" [13].

Marcus Garvey

Black Nationalism emerged from the ideology of 19th century black thinkers like Henry McNeal Turner, Martin Delany, Henry Highland Garnett, Edward Wilmot Blyden and Paul Cuffe. Convinced that blacks could never achieve equality in the United States, these early nationalists were among the first to advocate mass migration to Africa [3]. The overarching objectives of Black Nationalism have always revolved around "black pride and economic, social and political independence from white society". Historians generally categorize Black Nationalism into three periods of time: "pre-classical" black nationalist thought originated during the institution of slavery and led up to the American Revolution; circles of clery men compromised most of the Black Nationalists of the post-Reconstructionist Era; men like Marcus Garvey and Malcolm X are largely considered as the modern movers and shakers behind Black Nationalism. The idea of //afrocentricity// grew increasingly popular during the 1960s with the arrival of groups like Nation of Islam, Nation of Gods and Earths and the Moorish Science Temple. The turn to Islam as the predominant religion of black nationalists was based on the idea that the Western Judeo-Christian tradition was inherently racist and could never be equitable to blacks. Malcolm X activity scorned Dr. King, a Baptist minister, for his belief in non-violence as a means of achieving liberty. These groups emphasized the need to build strong racially-based communities that were independent and self-sustaining. Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association had over 11 million members during the early 20th century and strongly impressed upon its rank-and-file membership the notion of eventually returning to Africa or someday establishing a separate black state within the United States. Garvey fervently believed in "race first, self-reliance and nationhood" and wanted to establish the presence of a race in which people could see immense beauty [3]. Black Nationalists were overall a minority among African Americans -- public opinion polls taken during the 1960s indicated that most blacks chose Dr. King as their favored spokesperson while only 15 percent of blacks identified with Black Nationalist groups.

//Black Nationalism in IM//

Ras the Exhorter is the character Ellison identifies most with Black Nationalist thought. The utter turmoil that Ras wreaks upon Harlem in the final chapters of the novel serves to elucidate Ellison's critique of violence as a means of progress. IM's reflections upon Ras' actions during his transformation into the "Destroyer": "I looked at Ras on his horse and at their handful of guns and recognized the absurdity of the whole night and of the simple yet confoundingly complex arrangement of hope and desire, fear and hate, that had brought me here still running, and knowing now who I was and where I was and knowing too that I had no longer to run for or from the Jacks and the Emersons and the Bledsoes and Nortons, but only from their confusion, impatience, and refusal to recognize the beautiful absurdity of their American identity and mine. . . . And I knew that it was better to live out one’s own absurdity than to die for that of others, whether for Ras’s or Jack’s" [10]. Ras' ideology is articulated very early on during IM's experiences in Harlem. In reference to white people, Ras, while preaching from his soapbox states: "We 'gine to chase 'em out!" Ellison clearly tags Ras as the Black Nationalist figure in //IM//. Ellison's negative portrayal of Ras is most enforced during the sack of Harlem when Ras is dressed like an Abssynian war chief (garbs that were often worn by Marcus Garvey). The narrator's realization that the extreme separatism advocated by Ras is tantamount to the Brotherhood's "rationality" in its deceitfulness and absurdity reflect Ellison's view that a black man can never truly attain an identity in a society so deeply rooted in the hatred of slavery.

 A speech given by Malcolm X explaining the definition of Black Nationalism [A].

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 Malcolm X was murdered in Washington Heights on the first day of National Brotherhood Week. The idea for a National Brotherhood Week was later satirized by humorist/songwriter, Tom Lehrer [B].

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__Present day black political culture__

"From a white perspective, what looks like a sensible way to evaluate the thinking of black America is to imagine an axis with a cluster of views at each end. One cluster is politically liberal and culturally separatist; the other is conservative and assimilationist. Individual blacks' views can be plotted somewhere along the axis, with black-power and welfare-rights advocates falling near one cluster and conservatives who preach self-help near the other" [16].

Nicolas Lemann's article entitled "Philadelphia: Black Nationalism" classifies African Americans by their ideological standpoint on the most effective way to redress the bigotry and hatred of slavery and the wrongs of segregationism. "Liberal separationists" [16] are those African Americans who want radical, progressive reform and display what is often construed as black supremacy/reverse discrimination in their actions. They profess more socialistic viewpoints on economic and social policy. Men like the Reverends Al Sharpton and Jessie Jackson embody the modern day liberal separationist. These prominent figures have made innumerable contributions to the black community; Sharpton served as youth director for Operation Breadbasket, an organization which helps to find jobs for young African Americans; he founded the National Youth Movement in 1971, an organization which raises funds for impoverished African Americans; he created the National Action Network, an organization which works to increase voter education, fight poverty and support small community businesses [1]. Jackson's resume is equally as impressive. At the same time, Jessie Jackson and Al Sharpton have both been accused of "manufacturing racial incidents" [6] with regards to the recent Jena Six incident and the rape and murder of a 20-year old black woman in West Virginia. Why are many African Americans "quick to say 'Those guys don't speak for me'" [2] when Jackson and Sharpton have done so much to help the black community? There are a number of possibilities. For one thing, Sharpton and Jackson have made many statements disparaging directed towards whites, homosexuals and Jews which have convinced black Americans that their particular brand of "progress" is merely a replica of the bigotry and hatred once harbored by many whites. Jackson notoriously dubbed New York City "Hymietown" after the Jewish ethnic pejorative [14] and Sharpton was famously quoted in a speech saying: "White folks was in caves while we was building empires ... We taught philosophy and astrology and mathematics before Socrates and them Greek homos ever got around to it" [1]. Another conjecture as to why liberal seperationsin has failed to unify black Americans is rooted in Booker T. Washington's idea of "picking yourself up by your bootstraps" by accomodating to the "social realities of segregation and bigotry" [4]. The modern day resurrection of Washington's thinking is illustrated by the black middle and upper class, largely categorized as "assimilationist" in Lemann's analysis. Critics of the black middle class have noted the futility of "individual conquests of poverty" and the "myth of individualism," that has appealed to many upper-middle class blacks [7]. Coombs further implies that no matter how many blacks climb up the socio-economic ladder, there will always exist a "floating, poverty-stricken" black class that will never find economic stability. He states: "...there could be no relaxation for the black middle class, no false lull in the struggle for selfhood, as long as the underclass black gazed at the world from a garbage can." The ideology of conservative Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas represents the antithesis to liberal separationism promoted by the left. Thomas derived the basis for his judicial philosophy from the novel "Race and Economics" by Thomas Sowell which advocates for "individual action to overcome adversity" rather than government intervention in the form of social assistance [5].

//Ellison's work as a foreshadowing of present day conflict within the black community//

Ellison's observations of the ideological rifts within the black community were ahead of his time. Even though he cynically dismisses "progress" in the final moments of the novel as he comes to the existential realization that everyone who influenced him was phony, his work is an insightful commentary on the philosophical divides that to this day have inhibited the forces of social action. Brother Jack and Dr. Bledsoe both represent ideas present in the brand of liberal separationism promoted by Sharpton and Jackson. The juxtaposition of these prominent public figures with essentially flawed literary characters in //Invisible Man// is by no means a denigration of the many positive impacts Sharpton and Jackson have made on the black community, nor does it trivialize the significant role they have played in fighting for social justice. However, the radical approach they have taken in their systematic efforts to organize black Americans for the greater good of the black community parallels the actions of Bledsoe and Jack in //IM//. Both sets of figures rely on inculcation through the use of pointed rhetoric designed to inspire and incense black Americans. Both sets of figures contradict themselves -- (Sharpton's politically foibles are delineated in the previous paragraph) -- in //IM//, Jack is ultimately revealed as a racist figure hungry for power. The same applies for Bledsoe. He presents his dogma through the symbol of the university which initially represents a chance for upward mobility and progress for the eager protagonist; at it's core, however, the school is merely an illusion meant to give IM false hope for future success. This is revealed in Bledsoe's expulsion lecture in which he implies that he hardly cares for the well-being of his fellow race, and is more concerned with his pride and self-importance achieved through the white man's percpetion of him: "Power doesn't have to show off. Power is confident, self-assuring, self-starting and self-stopping, self-warming and self-justifying. When you have it, you know it... It's a nasty deal and I don't always like it myself. But you listen to me: I didn't make it, and I know I can't change it. But I've made my place in it, and I'll have every Negro in the country hanging on tree limbs by morning if it means staying where I am" [9]. The hypocrisy of the Brotherhood is foreshadowed in IM's encounter with a female member while discussing his potential role as spokesperson for the Brotherhood. She voices her concern that IM may "not be black enough." Thus, Ellison critiques liberal separationism by elucidating its flaws, specifically that it's idea of progress is often backwards and self-defeating. There are several instances throughout the narrator's experience with the Brotherhood in which Ellison further emphasizes his disillusionment with the state of social justice movements, specifically following the narrator's first major speech at a gymnasium rally when his remarks are criticized by the elders of the Brotherhood as too incendiary, and not "scientific" enough. The other incident which provokes the narrator to question the Brotherhood's genuine motives occurs after Clifton's death when the narrator is harshly rebuked by the elders of the Brotherhood for organizing a community funeral that elevates Clifton to the status of martyrdom. These events in Ellison's narrative serve to illuminate the author's perceptions of the liberal separationist attitude toward progress, that it's truest motives are clouded for the sole purpose of marketing a product to an unsuspecting audience that will believe whatever it wants given their oppressed status of living.



__References__

[1] "Al Sharpton." Wikipedia. 2 Mar 2008 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sharpton>.]

[2] Bailey, Ruby L. and Suzette Hackney. "Can varied voices have one leader?." __Detroit Free Press (Detroit, MI)__ (July 6, 2007): NA. __Custom Newspapers__. Gale. Suffern SR High School. 2 Mar. 2008 <[|http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=SPN.SP00>. [3] "Black Nationalism and Black Power." __Digital History__. 3 Mar 2008 .[4] "Booker T. Washington. Wikipedia. 2 Mar 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington

[5] "Clarence Thomas." Wikipedia. 2 Mar 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Thomas

[6] Colon, Alicia. "Al Sharpton's 'Racism'. (New York)." __The New York Sun (New York, NY)__ (Nov 2, 2007): 4. __Custom Newspapers__. Gale. Suffern SR High School. 2 Mar. 2008. [|http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=SPN.SP00.

[7] Coombs, Orde. "Notes on the Black Middle Class." __Alicia Paterson Foundation__ 30 Sep 1974. 02 Mar 2008 .

[8] "Double Consciousness." Wikipedia. 2 Mar 2008 <[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_consciousness>.]

[9] DuBois, W.E.B.. __The Souls of Black Folk__. Chicago: A.C. McCLURG & CO., 1903.

[10] Ellison, Ralph. __Invisible Man__. Second. New York: Vintage, 1947.

[11] Gibson, Robert A.. "Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois: The Problem of Negro Leadership." __Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute__ 203 Mar 2008 . [12] Graham, James. "The Philosophies and Strategies of the Non-Violence and Black Power Movements.". 1 Mar. 2008 <[|http://www.historyorb.com/america/civilrights.shtml>.]

[13] "Henry McNeal Turner." Wikipedia. 3 Mar 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_McNeal_Turner

[14] "Jessie Jackson." Wikipedia. 2 Mar 2008. 

[15] King Jr., Martin Luther, "Pilgrimage to Nonviolence.” The Christian Century 77 (13 April 1960), pp. 439-441. [16] Lemann, Nicholas. "Philadelphia: Black Nationalism." __The Atlantic Monthly__ Jan 1993. 02 Mar 2008 http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/race/lemann.htm.

[17] Marx, Gary T., and Michael Useem. "Majority Involvement in Minority Movements: Civil Rights, Abolition, Untouchability." __Journal of Social Issues__ 27((1971)): 81-104.

[18] McElrath, Jessica. "Martin Luther King's Philosophy on Nonviolent Resistance." About.com. 2 Mar 2008 <[|http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/martinlutherking/a/mlks_philosophy.htm>.] [19] Slackman, Michael. "Sharpton Runs for Presidency, and Influence." __The New York Times__ 05 Dec 2003:

[20] "W.E.B. DuBois." __Answers.com__. 3 Mar 2008 .

__Videos__

[A] Malcolm X speech. Courtesy of YouTube.com

[B] Tom Lehrer song. Courtesy of YouTube.com

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